Article Figures & Data
Figures
- FIG 1
Mechanisms of lantibiotic resistance which relate to the cell wall and membrane. (A) d-Alanylation of lipoteichoic acids (LTA) and wall teichoic acids (WTA) by the dltABCD operon, which confers a positive charge. (B) Changes in phospholipid composition. (C) Changes in membrane fatty acid composition. (D) Cell wall thickening. (E) Lysine esterification of one of the two hydroxyl groups of phosphatidylglycerol (PG) by Mprf. (F) Gram-negative outer cell membrane containing lipopolysaccharide (LPS).
- FIG 2
Two main types of two-component systems (TCSs) are responsible for lantibiotic resistance: the Bce-like TCSs (A) and the Lia-like TCSs (B). The presence of antimicrobials, such as lantibiotics, or the cell damage incurred as a result of their presence causes these TCSs to mediate the transcription of genes whose products confer a resistance phenotype.
- FIG 3
In S. aureus, three main TCSs are responsible for lantibiotic/antimicrobial resistance. These include two Bce-like TCSs, BraRS and GraRS, and an Lia-like TCS, VraSR. A coordinated resistance effort results from the actions of these TCSs, causing upregulation of genes whose products alter the composition of the cell wall and membrane and also of genes encoding ABC transporters which expel antimicrobials from the cell.
Tables
- TABLE 1
Summary of lantibiotic resistance methodsa
Resistance mechanism and relevant protein(s) or operon Species Regulator(s) Lantibiotic resistance(s) Cell wall/membrane-altering mechanisms Mprf S. aureus, L. monocytogenes VirRS/GraRS Nisin, gallidermin DltA Streptococcus spp., Staphylococcus spp., L. monocytogenes, L. lactis, B. subtilis, C. difficile VirRS/sigma factors Nisin, gallidermin gal operon L. lactis Nisin Penicillin-binding protein L. monocytogenes, L. lactis, S. aureus LiaRS, LisRK, VraSR, sigma factors Nisin Lipid composition, including the fab operon L. monocytogenes, L. lactis Nisin Miscellaneous resistance mechanisms Nisin resistance protein* L. lactis, Corynebacterium spp., Leuconostoc spp., Enterococcus spp., Streptococcus spp. Nisin Nisinase* S. thermophilus, L. plantarum, C. botulinum, L. lactis, E. faecalis, S. aureus, Bacillus spp. Nisin, subtilin Gad L. monocytogenes Nisin NsrX S. mutans NsrRS Nisin arc operon L. lactis Nisin PurR S. aureus Nisin IreK-IreP-IreB E. faecalis Nisin Sigma factors L. monocytogenes, B. subtilis Nisin, sublancin, mersacidin, subtilin gallidermin VraFG S. aureus GraXRS Nisin, nukacin ISK-1 CprABC C. difficile CprRK Nisin, gallidermin AnrAB L. monocytogenes VirRS Nisin VraDE S. aureus BraRS, VraSR Nisin YsaBC L. lactis LlrG/KinG Nisin BraDE S. aureus BraRS Nisin Lmo1746-Lmo1747 L. monocytogenes VirRS, LiaRS Nisin BceAB B. subtilis BceRS Actagardine, mersacidin PsdAB B. subtilis PsdRS Nisin, gallidermin, subtilin, actagardine Sp0912-Sp0913 S. pneumoniae Rr01-Hk01 Nisin LctFEG S. mutans LcrRS Nukacin ISK-1, lacticin 481 NsrFP Corynebacterium spp., Leuconostoc spp., Enterococcus spp., Streptococcus spp. NsrRK Nisin TelA L. monocytogenes LiaRS Nisin, gallidermin EfdFE* E. faecium Lacticin 3147 SpiFEG* S. infantarius SpiRR′K? Nisin Two-component systems TC09, TC12 L. casei Nisin GrsRS S. aureus Nisin, nukacin ISK-1 BraRS S. aureus Nisin, nukacin ISK-1 PsdRS B. subtilis Nisin, gallidermin, subtilin, actagardine LlrG/KinG L. lactis Nisin ApsRS S. epidermidis Nisin BceRS Bacillus spp. Actagardine, mersacidin LiaRS Bacillus spp., Streptococcus spp., L. monocytogenes Nisin NsrRS S. mutans Nisin, lacticin 481, nukacin ISK-1 LcrRS S. mutans Nukacin ISK-1, lacticin 481 VraSR S. aureus Nisin, mersacidin, nukacin ISK-1 LisRK L. monocytogenes Nisin CesSR L. lactis Nisin, plantaricin C VirRS L. monocytogenes Nisin CprRK C. difficile Nisin, gallidermin, subtilin, mutacin 1140, cinnamycin ↵a The table lists the strains in which lantibiotic resistance has been observed and the lantibiotics to which this resistance is targeted. Not included in the table are the general resistance mechanism inferred by the Gram-negative cell wall and that of spore or biofilm formation. Lantibiotic-specific resistance methods are indicated with asterisks.
